Guyana: East Indians and Afro-Guyanese
Anne Pitsch,
Overview
By the early 1900s, East Indians were dominant in rice production and small trade while the Afro-Guyanese were largely urban workers or miners. Ethnic divisions were apparent early in Guyana=s history with East Indians maintaining their culture while the Afro-Guyanese assimilated into the dominant European culture. After a tense decade of unrest in the British Caribbean, the Moyen Commission of 1938 recommended that the British grant Guyanese more freedoms, a greater say in government, and economic and social reforms, and a reform-minded governor, Gordon Lethem, began implementing the recommendations during World War II. In the post-war period, Guyanese began forming their own political parties: the People=s Progressive Party (PPP) and the People=s National Congress. The country=s two dominant political figures of this century, Cheddi Jagan (of Indo-Guyanese descent) and Linden Forbes Burnham (of Afro-Guyanese descent), began their political careers together under the auspices of the PPP. They later struggled over the leadership of the party, and Burnham eventually split the party and after some years of trying to consolidate his support base, founded the People=s National Congress (PNC). The split between Jagan and Burnham effectively represented the split within Guyana between the East Indian community, supporting Jagan, and the Afro-Guyanese, supporting Burnham. Jagan controlled the government in the pre and post-independence periods (1966). Jagan=s regime was seen as radically leftist, and the opposition undertook a destabilizing campaign that involved riots and demonstrations during 1961-64. There was also labor unrest throughout the early 1960s. Over 150 people were killed and a thousand homes destroyed in early 1964. The British reformed the constitution to provide for more proportional representation by adopting a unicameral legislature with 53 seats. In the 1964 elections, Jagan=s PPP lost it=s majority in the legislature, though it won 46% of the vote to the PNC=s 40%. The PNC formed a coalition with the United Front which provided them with a majority in the legislature and the freedom to choose the country=s Prime Minister. Forbes Burnham came to office 14 December 1964, and remained until his death in 1985. Like Jagan, Burnham had leftist leanings, and in 1968 he announced he would lead the country towards socialism. He was widely thought to have rigged the elections held while he was Prime Minister, and he made the PNC synonymous with the state. The year 1979 was marked by political violence in Guyana, and the opposition Working People=s Alliance, founded in 1973 as a multiethnic alternative to the dominant parties, was often the target of this violence. In the early 1980s, Guyana faced severe economic difficulties, and it was in the midst of this that Burnham unexpectedly died while recovering from surgery. Desmond Hoyte (of Afro-Guyanese descent) took over as president, and, amidst allegations of vote rigging and fraud, won the December 1985 elections to continue to rule the country. He began to implement a program of economic reforms which eventually led Guyana out of its slump into economic growth. Ethnic tensions under the Burnham and Hoyte regimes were high, though violence between the groups was minimal. Pressured to conduct free and fair elections from within and without the country, Hoyte announced elections would be held, after a two-year postponement in October 1992. The country was tense prior to and during the elections, but in the end, Cheddi Jagan=s PPP regained the upper hand in the legislature, and Jagan once again ruled Guyana. Jagan's second administration was marked by an increase in ethnic tensions in the country. Jagan was criticized particularly for firing civil servants who served under Hoyte, most of whom were Afro-Guyanese, and replacing them with East Indians. Though the economy continued to grow during Jagan=s years in office, the average wage remained low, and there continued to be labor unrest as well. Jagan unexpectedly died of a heart attack in March 1997. National elections took place in December, and Cheddi Jagan=s widow Janet Jagan of the PPP was elected president with 56% of the vote. She was sworn in during a secret ceremony just before she was served a summons. The courts had ruled in favor of a PNC request to bar Jagan=s swearing in and barring her from performing the duties of president. The Elections Commission acknowledged there were serious problems with the vote counting and verification of voters, but Jagan swore in her prime minister and several Cabinet members December 22nd amidst opposition threats and demands for a recount of the votes. Janet Jagan's regime has been marked by an increase in racial tensions which have included violent demonstrations and work stoppages throughout 1998. During 1998, The Caribbean community=s organization CARICOM mediated between the PNC and PPP on race and labor relations, but has yet to make significant progress on these issues. Desmond Hoyte continues to lead the opposition, particularly the Afro-Guyanese community which supports the PNC, but other multi-racial organizations such as GUARD (Guyana Association for Reform and Democracy) have been organized to provide an alternative to the country=s two political parties. Part of the problem between ethnic groups in the country is economic. Guyana experienced a negative growth rate in 1998 for the first time in the decade, and workers= wages remain extremely low.
Chronology:
1763: A slave revolt began on two plantations on the Canje River. Half of the white population eventually fled. 1781-1831: Control over the territory passed back and forth from the Dutch to the British. In 1831, the British established permanent control over Guyana which it would hold until 1966. 1838: Total emancipation of slavery in British colonies was effected. Emancipation led to labor shortages as Afro-Guyanese moved to town or purchased plantations in community. As a result, the British brought in indentured servants from Asia, primarily from India. (Guyana: A Country Study) 1905: Stevedores in Georgetown went on strike demanding higher wages. The protest was put down by police, and seven people were killed and seventeen wounded. The strike failed, but eventually led to the organization of Guyana=s trade unions beginning in 1917. (Guyana: A Country Study) 1930s: The British Caribbean was marked by labor unrest and demonstrations. In Guyana, the Moyne Commission was established to assess the conditions of labor in the country. Results showed deep division between Afro-Guyanese and Indo-Guyanese. The East Indians were mainly rural rice producers who had maintained their traditional culture and did not participate in national politics while the Afro-Guyanese were mainly urban workers or miners who had adopted European culture and dominated national politics. (Guyana: A Country Study) Post-World War II: Guyana=s major political parties were founded: the People=s Progressive party (PPP, 1950) and the People=s National Congress (PNC, 1957). The PPP, led by Cheddi Jagan, was supported mainly by East Indians, while the PNC, led by Linden Forbes Burnham who until the creation of the PNC had been a partner of Jagan=s in the PPP, was supported mainly by Afro-Guyanese. 1953: Elections were held for the first time in Guyana. The PPP was victorious, but was not allowed to rule for very long. The legislature opened at the end of May, and by October, the British had suspended the colony=s constitution and sent in troops. The British were concerned with the radical nature of Jagan=s administration. (Guyana: A Country Study) 1957: Elections were held under a new constitution. Jagan=s PPP again won the elections. Shortly thereafter, Burnham reorganized the United Democratic Party into the People=s National Congress in a bid to consolidate his support base among the Afro-Guyanese. 1961-1964: After winning elections in 1961, Jagan=s regime faced a destabilizing campaign, consisting of riots and demonstrations, conducted by the PNC and United Force (a conservative party representing businessmen, the Church, and Chinese, Portuguese, and indigenous voters). In 1964, a state of emergency was declared, and by June, 160 had been killed and 1000 homes destroyed in labor unrest. (Guyana: A Country Study) 1964: Electoral reforms were implemented by the British. As result, the PPP won 24 of 53 seats in the unicameral legislature while the PNC won 22 and the UF won seven. The PNC and UF formed a coalition, becoming the majority in the legislature. Jagan called the election a fraud and refused to resign as Prime Minister. However, the constitution was amended to allow the British governor to remove the Prime Minister from office. Burnham then took over as Prime Minister 14 December 1964. (Guyana: A Country Study) 26 May 1966: Guyana achieved independence. January 1969: White settlers and indigenous people in the Rupunini region in southwest Guyana rebelled against the central government. They declared their independence and asked Venezuela for aid. The local rebellion was quickly put down by the government. 1970s: Electoral fraud became prevalent in Guyana. There was police intimidation against East Indians, and the army was accused of tampering with ballot boxes. November 1978: The massacre of Jim Jones followers put the Burnham government under unwanted foreign scrutiny, especially from the United States, which led to the weakening of his regime. (Guyana: A Country Study) 1979: Guyana was rocked by violence with assassinations or arrests of political leaders. 1980: A new constitution was promulgated. It abolished the ceremonial post of president, and changed the head of state from prime minister to executive president chose by the majority party in the National Assembly. Guyana faced an economic crisis in the 1980s which resulted in the deterioration of public services, infrastructure and overall quality of life in the country. (Guyana: A Country Study) 6 August 1985: Forbes Burnham unexpectedly died after surgery. Vice President Desmond Hoyte took over the hands of government as executive president and leader of the PNC. December 1985: Elections were held in which the PNC won 79% of the vote and 42 of 53 legislative seats. The elections took place amid violence, banning of foreign observers, and allegations of fraud. The elections reinforced the racial divide between East Indians and Afro-Guyanese. (National Review, 3/28/86) Following the election, the Patriotic Coalition for Democracy, comprising the People=s Progressive Party (PPP), the Working People=s Alliance, the Democratic Labor Movement, and the National Democratic Front, was formed. (Inter Press Service, 1/29/90) Charging fraud, the PPP refused to participate in 1986 municipal seats, leaving the PNC to win all 91 local government posts. (Guyana: A Country Study) May 1989: Guyana=s economy was in shambles, though the country is rich in natural resources. The military was on alert after violence erupted because of people=s frustrations with their economic situations. Guyana has had virtually no growth in the 1980s and suspended payments on its foreign debt, and western creditors have stopped most aid. (Los Angeles Times, 5/28/89) 29 January 1990: A reform movement, GUARD (Guyana Action for Reform and Democracy), aided by the Church has taken the lead in the campaign for free and fair elections and is attracting thousands to its rallies. It was formed in late 1989 in an atmosphere of disenchantment with the inability of the opposition to remove the PNC. It is supported by the Anglican and Catholic churches as well as the business community. (IPS, 1/29/90) September 1990: The PCD coalition broke down in September 1990 when parties could not agree on a single candidate to contest the upcoming elections. (IPS 11/5/90) 17 September 1990: Gangs of youths believed to be PNC supporters attacked a peaceful pro-democracy march organized by GUARD. Most of the attackers were Afro-Guyanese while the marchers were predominantly East Indians. (IPS, 9/17/90) 5 November 1990: GUARD has decided to contest the upcoming elections. It has been drawing a multi-racial following. (IPS 11/5/90) July 1991: Two thousand union workers held a protest rally to demand an increase in the minimum wage to $4/day. (L.A. Times 9/15/91) January 1992: GUARD became the Guyana Labor Party ahead of the upcoming election. 29 August 1992: Parliament was dissolved, and President Hoyte announced that elections would take place October 5. Elections scheduled to be held in 1990 and 1991 did not take place because of inaccurate voter lists. A new list has been approved by the 14 political parties contesting the election and foreign observers. Opposition parties have charged that the two-year election delay was caused by the PNC=s attempt at election fraud. (IPS 8/31/92) October 1992: There are tensions and hoarding of food in Guyana in the run-up to elections. There is fear that the PNC will use violence to intimidate voters and election officials. The Afro-Guyanese continue to control the military. Despite economic growth, the daily wage remains extremely low, and thousands emigrate each year. (The Guardian, 10/3/92) 5-6 October 1992: Riots by hundreds of young blacks have taken place on the day of and day following national elections. Police shot dead one and wounded four others who were reportedly looting. Protestors were also arrested. (IPS 10/5/92, Reuters 10/7/92) 7 October 1992: The army pledged to respect the results of the October 5th elections in which Cheddi Jagan won the presidency and the PPP 56 seats in parliament. The military voted overwhelmingly for the PNC on September 29th. Tensions in Georgetown remained high as police and hundreds of youths roamed the streets. (IPS 10/7/92) 12 November 1992: Former president Hoyte urged civil servants to reject the 8% wage increased offered by the Jagan administration. The PPP had promised a 300% raise, but later said it was unable to deliver because of strict IMF guidelines. (IPS, 11/12/92) August 1993: Tensions between Africans and East Indians escalated after President Jagan=s body guard killed a 20-year-old black youth (IPS, 8/13/93) The opposition and the government are at odds over plans to buy arms from several Latin American countries. The government says the arms are to be used to fight gun trafficking. (IPS, 8/31/93) 11 September 1993: The government has established a commission to deal with race relations in Guyana. The Jagan administration has attracted criticism from the opposition and ordinary Guyanese for replacing government mainly Afro-Guyanese officials and diplomats who served under the PNC.. (IPS, 9/11/93) May 1996: May 26th was declared a day of healing for the nation. Organizers want all Guyanese to join hands for three minutes at 10 am as the nation celebrates its independence. Jagan=s PPP has sacked, demoted and transferred officials, mostly Afro-Guyanese, who served in Hoyte=s administration, while critics contend that ineffective East Indians have maintained their positions. 6 March 1997: President Cheddi Jagan died following a heart attack. December 1997: There have been incidents of violence involving PPP and PNC supporters in the run-up to elections. The PPP has accused the PNC of organizing groups to disrupt meetings and heckle speakers. The Guyana Council of Churches has appealed for calm. (IPS, 12/4/97, 12/18/97) National elections took place December 15th. Janet Jagan of the PPP was elected president with 56% of the vote. She was sworn in during a secret ceremony just before she was served a summons. The courts had ruled in favor of a PNC request to bar Jagan=s swearing in and barring her from performing the duties of president. The Elections Commission acknowledged there were serious problems with the vote counting and verification of voters. (IPS, 12/22/97). Jagan swore in her prime minister and several Cabinet members December 22nd amidst opposition threats and demands for a recount of the votes. The Court is to hear arguments from both sides on December 30th. (Associated Press, 12/22/97) Jagan's victory was later declared valid by CARICOM. (BBC, 7/5/98) January 1998: Daily street protests and bombings which followed the December 15th elections ended January 17 when the PPP and PNC signed a peace accord brokered by CARICOM (Caribbean Community and Common Market). There were no casualties in the violence, but about 50 were injured. The unrest led to a sharp rise in the exchange rate and investor wariness of the political stability of Guyana. (IPS, 2/11/98) 1 June 1998: The PPP government rejected the appointment of Haitian Danielle Benjam as the UNDP resident representative in Guyana. It is the second time that the government has rejected the nomination of a black UN diplomat, and the African Cultural Development Association has suggested that the rejections are racially based. In late May, the top business executives also called on the government to do something about racial tensions in the country. (IPS 6/1/1998) 25 June 1998: The PPP has demanded that the PNC take up its seats in the legislature so that the required 2/3 majority would be present for voting on bills. The PNC in turn is demanding that the government admits to widespread discrimination against Afro-Guyanese. (IPS, 6/25/98) July 1998: There have been three weeks of political tension and street violence, including a July 29th march of defiance and a general strike called by Desmond Hoyte. The protestors smashed East Indian-owned shop windows and fought against police using tear gas. Hoyte said the demonstrations were spontaneous and prompted by racial and political discrimination by the PPP government. Earlier in the year, the Afro-Guyanese had been protesting against alleged vote-rigging in the December elections. The focus of protests turned to alleged discrimination by the government after the elections were declared valid by CARICOM. There have also been bomb threats against the Ministry of Finance and the Labor and Welfare Ministry. There were similar demonstrations in December-January following national elections December 15th. (The Guardian, 7/29/98) August 1998: The government and opposition have agreed on broad terms of reference for a commission appointed to revise the constitution. The 1980 constitution gives widespread powers and immunities to the president, but gives few guidelines for guaranteeing human rights, ethnic relations, the conduct of elections, and responsibilities of government. The PNC opposition complains that under the present system, the PPP can give preferential treatment to East Indians. CARICOM leaders have been working in Guyana to bring about a solution to the ethnic tensions that have exploded since the December elections. (LA Newsletters, 8/25/98; IPS 7/30/98) November 1998: The opposition is getting impatient with the lack of progress on certain issues, including constitutional reform and elections planned for 2000, by the Jagan administration. Opposition leader and former president Hoyte also accused President Jagan of enacting racist policies against blacks. Political instability in the country has severely affected efforts of economic reform, and Guyana experienced negative growth for the first half of 1998. (IPS, 11/10/98) During 1991-1998, the economy expanded 7% per year. (Washington Times, 12/8/98) 3 December 1998: Talks on race relations sponsored by the government but missing the PNC opened. GIFT (Guyana Indian Foundation Trust), which advocates a separate Indian enclave within Guyana, also was absent from the talks. One of the themes of the talks is poverty alleviation especially among the urban population around Georgetown. According to University of Guyana studies, the poverty rate exceeds 70% of the total population. (IPS, 12/3/98) February 1999: Some 3000 Afro-Guyanese met with a black former army officer to discuss the ouster of President Jagan. Police have denied the officer, Leslie Johnson, permits to hold rallies, but he has appeared on TV to state his case. Johnson, who has lived outside Guyana for more than 20 years, says he is funded by the US government to overthrow the Jagan administration. The US denies this charge. (IPS, 2/3/99) 21 February 1999: Opposition leader Hoyte announced his withdrawal from the negotiating table as bi-partisan talks broke down . He said he is preparing to organize another round of street protests. (IPS, 2/26/99) May 1999: Twenty-four unions have joined thousands of civil servants on strike since early May to press for a 40% pay raise and to protest the police shooting of 17 demonstrators on May 18th. The incident occurred when police fired teargas and shotguns into a crown of protestors trying to prevent customs officers from processing goods. After the shooting, what began as an industrial protest has turned into a political action as opposition parties entered the protest. (IPS 5/20/99)
Risk Assessment
The smaller ethnic communities do not seem to play a significant role in the country=s politics. Coalitions with multi-ethnic leadership and support of the churches have sprung up in the 1990s, but to date they have been unable to move the country along the path to racial harmony. Continued economic growth that trickles down to the common man would help ease ethnic tensions in the country, yet until the Afro-Guyanese cease to feel threatened by the numerical advantage of the East Indians, ethnic tensions and distrust between the two groups will remain. East Indians have to prove to Afro-Guyanese that they have nothing to fear from an Indo-Guyanese dominated government, while both group have to work on multi-ethnic coalition building or working together politically and economically while maintaining separate parties. The Caribbean Community continues to work to bridge the divide between ethnic groups, but the outlook at present is not positive. The 2000 elections will likely be marked by violence unless an agreement between Afro-Guyanese and Indo-Guyanese is reached before hand and all communities= leaders push for racial harmony and peace.
References Guyana: A Country Study. 1992. Washington D.C. Library of Congress. Lexis/Nexis news wires including: Inter Press Service, BBC, The Guardian, the L.A. Times, and Reuters Premdas, Ralph R. 1995. Ethnic Conflict and Development: The Case of Guyana. Brookfield, VT.: Avebury.
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