In the series thus far, globalisation and the incipient emergence of the criminalised state, which I have introduced as a degenerative variant of the post-colonial authoritarian state in Guyana, is one of several forms of mutation of the state that have occurred in recent times. Other such mutations cannot be ruled out at this historical juncture. I have already covered a number of important aspects of this phenomenon, including the nature and functioning of the shadow economy, governance and corruption in this form of state. This week I turn to another aspect, where I examine briefly alternative (and seemingly related) formulations of new state types that have emerged in recent international debates. A striking feature of the recent debates is that for all versions of degenerative states, which have been portrayed so far, corruption and poor governance are highlighted as endemic features of such societies along with the risk these states pose to global security.
The insidious menace
It is not surprising, therefore, that an international response to the perceived threat which these states represent has already been put in motion. Although I shall return to this point more fully later, an important development to note at this stage has taken place recently. On Monday last (June 9) Mr Kofi Annan the Secretary-General of the United Nations issued a press release whose wording adds considerable weight to several of the arguments, which I have been advancing in this column in recent weeks. Thus the press statement boldly states that: “corruption is an ‘insidious menace’ and obstacle to economic and social development around the world.” It went on to point out that “corruption debases democracy, undermines the rule of law, distorts markets, stifles economic growth, and denies many their rightful share of economic resources or life-saving aid.” While readers would recognise that these points were already being made in this series, the weight of the UN Secretary-General’s expressions behind them, is of immeasurable significance.
The Secretary-General’s statement, however, also included the further announcement that: “a major step forward is expected later this year when Member States gather in Mexico City to sign a United Nations Convention Against Corruption.” From all reports the proposed Convention seeks “to ensure the criminalisation of diverse forms of corruption.” Consequently, it will place specific legal obligations on member states of the UN to rectify this situation in their countries and to cooperate globally to bring it to an end.
Terrorism, global insecurity and failed states
From my understanding, the primary motive behind this proposed strike against global corruption is two-fold. First, there is the concern forcefully expressed by the Secretary-General that: “by contributing to poverty and a sense of hopelessness corruption can be a midwife of terrorism, trafficking in people, and other threats to human security.” Corruption is therefore portrayed as directly linked to terrorism and global insecurity. The second consideration is that this concern is in part spawned by a number of theories, which have been developed by analysts to explain the dramatic degeneration of several states in the age of globalisation and the global security risk this now constitutes. By far the most widely known of these are the theories related to ‘failed states.’ In my presentation I shall focus mainly on this theoretical formulation.
Related to the dramatic adverse impacts of globalisation on a number of countries is one striking phenomenon, which is the increasing number of societies that are marked by situations in which some combination or all of the following degenerations are occurring. First, violent disorder frequently punctuates the ordinary everyday life of significant sections of the population. More often than not this disorder is rooted in systemic conditions, for example deep-seated territorial, racial, or cultural conflicts, with the result that it has become persistent. This disorder has taken many forms, ranging from regular violent public demonstrations over issues and events to the operations of predatory criminal gangs with private and other agendas. Repeated excesses of state violence often mark the state response to this situation.
Second, transnational organised crime exercises a considerable hold on society, and almost constantly insinuates itself deeper and deeper into its every ‘nook and cranny.’ As suggested in this series, this penetration may be proxy measured by the relative size of the shadow economy under the control of organised crime. Third, invariably a ‘culture of corruption’ comes to be accepted by society at large. The result is that corrupt practices spread insidiously into all ‘arms of the state,’ enveloping in their wake important sections of executive, security, judicial and legislative bodies. Fourth, closely linked to these developments is the inevitable emergence of shadow and clandestine armed groups, militias, or gangs well connected to the political-economic establishment and on whose behalf they enforce so-called ‘public order’ and ‘dispense justice.’ These shadow groups operate both on their own and/or in covert collusion with some sections of the security forces. Fifth, poor governance, in both the public and private sectors, has become the norm.
Fragile
Sixth, such states are clearly fragile and become susceptible to external pressures and/or interventions, depending on the geo-strategic considerations at stake. Not infrequently armed intrusions occur as neighbouring states seek to protect or expand their frontiers. Seventh, in such an environment economic activity is severely constrained, and a cycle of poverty-instability-violence very often becomes self-perpetuating.
The final situation we can note is that such states pose threats to their neighbours, regions and the wider international community. These threats often take many forms ranging from immigration pressures to arms trafficking and the narcotics trade.
Of course the situations described above can manifest themselves in an acute and extreme form. Thus for example in some societies in the face of these pressures massive population displacement occurs within or across national borders. There can also be situations where ‘law and order’ has broken down to the point where the state cannot guarantee the security of its population. These circumstances are exceptional and to my mind warrant a different explanatory model.
Next week we continue with this discussion of the failed state.